Sarah Winnemucca

Sarah Winnemucca: Nevada’s Unsung Hero

by Bailey Gamberg

Throughout United States History, Native Americans have suffered from unnecessary and cruel treatment. In tribes all over the nation, these indigenous people have been stripped of their possessions, banished from their homes, beaten, raped, and killed with little or no provocation. Although instances such as the Indian Removal Act occurred in the beginning of the 19th century, Northern Nevada was not as prominently settled until decades later. The native people of the Truckee Meadows area are the Paiute (sometimes spelled Piute) tribe. Like many other Native American tribes, the Paiutes were faced with a multitude of disputes with the migrating Caucasians. Rising in the midst of the turmoil however was the Winnemucca family, the chief governing unit of the Northern Paiutes. A dominant figure within the family was the middle daughter, Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins. Through her influential early years and traveling adolescence, Sarah has left a legacy as an extremely significant author, lecturer, and political activist for her people.

The Northern Paiutes have several different tribes based around Northern California, Oregon, and Northern Nevada. However, the Reno region is home to conflicts such as the War of 1860 and the Bannock War between Paiutes and white settlers. European Americans discovered in the 19th century that Nevada and California were home to vast amounts of gold, silver, and other minerals that could be mined for large amounts of cash. This discovery sparked the infamous “Gold Rush,” in which thousands of families migrated to the West Coast in search of striking it rich. These families began to settle in lands that once belonged to the Paiute people, and the Native Americans struggled to find a compromising peace between the two cultures.

As these settlers and explorers continued to venture further West, Chief Truckee, the grandfather of Sarah Winnemucca, was more than willing to aid his “white brothers.” Chief Truckee was welcoming to the ambitious Europeans, despite the will of his tribe. The chief continuously had dreams that the settlers meant no harm, and “Although many Paiutes demanded war, [Chief Truckee] persisted in keeping peace with the white people whom he dearly loved” (Coates). The Chief’s idea proved to be true for the time being, as the white men generously gave gifts such as silverware, clothing, and other unheard of delicacies. In return, Chief Truckee was ample in giving gifts of fish, hunted game, and information. He became a guide through the Sierra Nevada and Lake Tahoe area by providing shortcuts, advice, and typical weather patterns.

It was around this time period, approximately 1844, when Sarah Winnemucca was born to (future) Chief Winnemucca and his first wife, Tuboitonie. Her childhood was hurled through an entire new era for the Paiute Indians, and these occurrences affected the rest of her lifetime.

Background

Because of the fact that Native Americans do not have formal written languages, much of their history is depicted through artifacts, passed-down tales, and reports from European Americans. However, in her teenage years Sarah lived in a white household and learned a rudimentary version of written and spoken English. As an adult looking back on her experience, Sarah became the first Native American woman to write an autobiography, titled Life Among the Piutes. A majority of the information regarding her childhood is pulled from this writing. I figured that it would be best to take most of my information from her autobiography in comparison to a biography written about her, because it would have the most detail. Someone with a firsthand experience is likely to provide more passionate particulars regarding the Caucasians’ abuse.

Sarah Winnemucca was evidently not her birth name, but rather one given to her later on as she became more integrated with the European Americans. Her original name was Thocmetony, which in the Paiute language translates to “shell flower.” She was born with an older brother and sister, Lee and Mary, respectively, and later had a younger brother named Natchez (meaning “boy” in Paiute) and a younger sister named Elma.

Sarah’s tribe of Paiutes traveled often and was headed by Chief Truckee at the time. They journeyed through different areas in the Great Basin Valley and central and northern California, such as Stockton and the San Joaquin River. Sarah “was a very small child when the first white people came into [her] country. They came like a lion, yes, like a roaring lion, and have continued to ever since, and [she had] never forgotten their first coming” (Winnemucca 5). As stated before, Chief Truckee previously had prophetic dreams regarding his white brothers. As soon as some scouts had spotted the incoming explorers, Chief Truckee rode out with his finest men and attempted to show peace, but the task was a struggle. Eventually there came white men that Chief Truckee befriended, and they showered each other with gifts and kindness. The chief kept repeatedly telling the settlers the word “truckee,” meaning “it is okay” in English. However, the word was misinterpreted, and the whites believed that the Indian leader was telling them his name, and so the title Chief Truckee stuck.

Continuous groups of white explorers led by captains and generals marched through the land, and Chief Truckee would occasionally leave the tribe to aid them in navigating the terrain, leaving his son-in-law Chief Winnemucca in charge. Chief Truckee was granted gifts “of the soldiers’ clothes with all their brass buttons” (Winnemucca 10) and eventually a peaceable letter of recommendation, whom the chief called his rag friend. This sheet of paper written by General Fremont stated in English that Chief Truckee and his people were friendly and could be decently trusted.

It was around this time period that Sarah heard fearful stories “that the whites were killing everybody and eating them” (11). Today, we know of this tale as the infamous, cannibalistic Donner Party. This group of 88 settlers were traveling west, and got trapped in the Sierra Nevada Mountains during a particularly awful snowstorm. A few stragglers decided to branch off for help, and “three of the men and the boy died. Their starving companions fed upon the bodies and ate their moccasins and the strings of their snowshoes” (Byington, 136). Just to specify, no one in the Donner party murdered individuals, nor did they consume Native American flesh. However, as most oral stories go, the tale was manipulated as it traveled down the grapevine, thus resulting in what the Native American mothers told their children.

Considering this exaggerated legend is one of her first recollections, Sarah was excruciatingly fearful of the white people from this time on. In her autobiography, Sarah recounts dozens of times when the white people intermingled with the tribe, and she burst into tears at the sight of them. Her grandfather had to frequently soothe her nerves by murmuring words of comfort and reminding her that the white brothers had not caused any harm.

Although it took many years, Sarah began to become more trusting of the white Americans. In one instance she fell extremely ill and would have been near death if a medicinal Euro-American woman had not be willing to aid her. Upon her revival, Sarah consequently came to the realization that not all white brothers are out to harm Native Americans. A portion of these new settlers wanted a fusion of peace and compromise between the two cultures almost as much as the Paiutes did. Because of this increased relationship between particular European Americans and Chief Truckee’s tribe, Sarah and her sister Elma eventually made temporary residence “in Genoa with Major Ormsbey’s family, who took [them] as playmates for their little girl” (Winnemucca 58). As a result of the alternative environment, Sarah learned a basic knowledge of the English language at a swift pace. Becoming a bilingual vastly aided Sarah in the future, because it opened opportunities for her to further communicate and intermingle with Americans for the rest of her lifetime.

Sarah returned to the tribe and her homeland when word had come that her grandfather was very ill and near death. Much to the sorrow of the Paiutes, Chief Truckee succumbed to sickness and after a few final, weak days his spirit went to Heaven. The entire tribe was devastated by his death, for he was an exceptionally inspirational leader. Shortly thereafter Sarah, Elma, and Natchez spent some time in California amongst European Americans once more, then returned simultaneously with the spark of the War of 1860.

Conflict

The War of 1860 (also known as the Paiute War) lasted for only a few months, and was comprised of only two battles, but still suffered a major loss of life. Dr. William Rowley, a Nevada History professor at University of Nevada, Reno, remarks that, “this war is interesting because it appears to be small and insignificant. The US military in any sense wasn’t even involved, yet there were about 70 recorded causalities, if not more.” The ignition for this war was when “two girls about twelve years old went out in the woods, to dig roots, and did not come back” (Winnemucca 70). After lots of questioning and persistence the Paiutes finally discovered that the girls were tied up and gagged in a basement of the Williams brothers, who were two nearby storekeepers. In an outrage the Paiute rescue party killed both white men and left the bodies there. The first battle took place not long after, with essentially a mob of approximately 150 men marching into Paiute territory. They were greatly outnumbered and not at a home advantage, thus explaining how the great loss of life occurred. The second battle was similar, in the sense that it was an informal mob attacking the Paiute Indians. Although small raids, fights, and skirmishes continued after the conclusion of the second battle, there was an informal cease-fire and a lack of large attacks.

However, a result of the War of 1860 was that the Paiutes were granted their own reservation land around Pyramid Lake, which “was at first sixty miles long and fifteen wide” (Winnemucca 76). Sarah continued moving around the area, switching off her time with pleasant Caucasian households and with the remaining members of her Paiute family. Her father, Chief Winnemucca, caused great turmoil by temporarily abandoning the tribe, leaving Natchez and Sarah in charge in his place. Even though the Paiute people had been granted a reservation, times were not well. In her autobiography Sarah explicitly states, “Dear reader, I must tell a little more about my poor people, and what we suffer at the hands of our white brothers. Since the War of 1860 there have been 103 of my people murdered, and our [lands] taken from us; and yet we, who are called blood-seeking savages, are keeping our promises to the government” (89). Due to the conditions stated in the agreement between the tribe and the government, the Paiutes were often forced to help the nearby American generals, with some pay in return so the labor did not appear to be inhumane.

General Oytes gave the Paiutes tasks such as digging ditches, building a dam, harvesting hay and potatoes, and constructing a schoolhouse. In this period, Sarah’s job as a translator between the English speakers and the Paiute speakers became vital. Especially in times of tension, Sarah was tasked with sending and translating messages back and forth between both groups. Once the schoolhouse was fully built, Sarah and another woman, Mrs. Parrish, were tasked with teaching more and more Paiute children how to read and write in English.

Although the Paiute people were kind to the Caucasians throughout the entire process, it is clear that the white people were manipulating them. Upon their first meeting, General Oytes stated outright to the Indians, “I have come to show you how to work, and we must…I am a bad man; but I will try and do my duty, and teach you all how to work” (106). The goal of the settling European Americans was to “civilize” the Native Americans and eventually have them become capable of cultivating a profit for the government without continuous intervention. The whites forced the Native Americans to work, build, and harvest unless they wanted to be brutalized by the military. Despite this, there were still many instances of cruelty.

After General Oytes, a different man named Mr. Parrish took over as the “agent” of the reservation and nearby Paiutes. Sarah remarks that he was one of the few white men who was incessantly kind to them, and when his transfer was requested the whole tribe was saddened. An unpleasant individual named Mr. Reinhard took his place. Sarah recalls one specific situation where he called to a non-English speaking boy they called Johnny, and the boy kept running because he did not understand Mr. Reinhard’s command. Mr. Reinhard then pulled out a gun and commanded, “‘Stop, or I will shoot you.’ But Johnny ran all the faster and got away from him” (Winnemucca 131).

Overall, conditions worsened under Mr. Reinhard’s leadership. Sarah and Natchez began writing letters to “the Big Father in Washington,” which is what Sarah referred to as the President of the United States. The Paiutes felt insecure and restrained by their current agent, and even when the Winnemuccas tried to civilly speak with him about the issues, Mr. Reinhard resisted. When the Native Americans were not given wheat as payment for their hard work, Mr. Reinhard proclaimed, “‘Nothing here is yours. It is all the government’s. If Parrish told you so, he told you lies’” (133). Mr. Reinhard had a fist of steel restraining the Native Americans, and although they attempted to wriggle free, his grasp was seemingly unrelenting.

Reformation

During this time, Sarah began to rise as a spokesperson for her people. Her knowledge in the English language continued to increase, and she was one of the few who was willing to blatantly stand up and speak against Mr. Reinhard and other malevolent agents. After a rally with the Native Americans and a few other American officials who had preferred Mr. Parrish greatly over Mr. Reinhard, the Paiutes concluded that money needed to be gathered to send Sarah to Washington DC to speak with the President or other government representative there. Although this was the goal of the Paiutes, there were plenty of obstacles introduced along the way.

One of the largest issues was that Sarah would have to raise a lot of money to journey cross-country to Washington DC, along with funds for boarding and food there and along the way. In order to earn this amount of money, Sarah struck a deal with a nearby agent named General Howard. If she was willing to work as an interpreter and messenger at Howard’s beck and call, he would pay her sufficient funds to eventually complete her journey. However, this job was more dangerous than originally anticipated. The Bannock War, another dispute which Professor Rowley describes as “remarkably similar to the War of 1860” broke out, and some of the Pyramid Lake Paiute Indians left to fight with the Bannock Paiutes, while the rest remained in their homeland.

Sarah experienced plenty of firsthand, hazardous situations, and witnessed awful events. An occurrence that gave Sarah what appears to be an undiagnosed version of posttraumatic stress disorder is when an innocent Indian named Egan “was cut in pieces, and his head taken to the officers, and Dr. Fitzgerald boiled it to get the skull to keep” (182). Sarah continuously had to relay and translate other horrendous messages between the two parties as a neutral party.

However, once the Bannock War began dying down, Sarah was not relinquished her funds as promised. She returned to Pyramid Lake, where the entire tribe rejoiced to see her. “‘I thought I would never see you, for the papers said you were killed by the Bannocks!’” her father, Chief Winnemucca, had exclaimed upon her arrival. Sarah noted that, “the tears were running down his cheeks. [She] looked round, and saw tears in everyone’s eyes” (Winnemucca 189). After celebrations because of Sarah’s return, she and her people eventually grew frustrated because she was not given as much pay as promised, and therefore could not yet venture to the capital. Instead, not long after the ending of the war, a neutral officer called Sarah into his office to explain to her that an order was issued for her people to be moved from Pyramid Lake to Yakima reservation within the following week.

Sarah was outraged by this injustice. She exclaimed, “‘In this cold winter and in all this snow, and my people have so many little children? Why they will all die. Oh, what can the President be thinking about? Oh, tell me, what is he? Is he man or beast?’” (Winnemucca 205). The Paiute tribe was forced to move, and because of the harsh weather conditions two newborns, a mother, a man, and three other children died. None of her people liked the Yakima reservation, and longed to return home, where most of the tribe members had been born and grown up. They begged Sarah to go east and speak to the president, but Sarah continuously “told them [she] had no money to go with just then” but she hoped to have a large enough amount soon (Winnemucca 214).

In hopes of gaining donation sums and general awareness of the issues white men were causing her people, Sarah began to lecture around California. She traveled to various cities and spoke of her experienced injustices. Many people assumed that she was lecturing for selfish, monetary purposes, but Sarah responded to these claims by saying, “‘I have come to plead for my poor people, who are dying off with broken hearts, because they are separated from their children and husbands and wives and sons’” (Winnemucca 218). Sarah claimed that she was bound to lecture, and her travels began to give her nationwide attention. An archived New York Times newspaper article dating back to July 29, 1873, which was around this time period, described Sarah Winnemucca as “the Virgin Queen of the Piutes: a plain little woman, pretty dark; dresses like an American female of rustic habits and modest pretensions; and talks English without any perceptible accent” (“Miss Sarah”). Finally, after months of speaking for her tribe, it gained government attention. Sarah was informed by a man named Mr. Hayford that the government was willing to pay for Chief Winnemucca, Natchez, and Sarah to travel to Washington D.C. and speak with officials there.

The Winnemuccas spoke largely with Carl Schurz, Secretary of the Interior. They all discussed negotiations, and eventually came to an authorized conclusion which stated that the Paiutes were entitled to “their primeval home…to have lands allotted to them in severalty, at the rate of one hundred and sixty acres to each head of a family, and each male. Such lands they are to cultivate for their own benefit” (Winnemucca 24). The document also stated that the government would continue to aid them until it was proven that the Indians were intelligent and efficient enough to nurture the land entirely for themselves.

Sarah, her father, and her brother returned to the Yakima reservation after this brief confrontation and rejoiced. Despite this documentation, it took many years for the Paiutes to finally be able to return to their original location at Pyramid Lake. During this time period Sarah Winnemucca continued the education of small children, along with traveling lectures around the Western side of the United States to advocate not only for the Paiutes, but also for general Native American rights. The conclusion of Sarah’s autobiography is concise, stating that she eventually settled in Montana with her husband Mr. Hopkins, occasionally continuing to speak to particular audiences and returning to Pyramid Lake to visit her Native American family. At this point, Sarah had almost entirely converted to the typical American society of the time period, except with many more radical views on equality.

Legacy

In comparison to other famous activists such as Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, or Gandhi, Sarah Winnemucca appears inconsequential. Regardless of this comparative claim, she had achieved something none had ever done before her. In a time when both Native Americans and women were greatly suppressed, with few to no rights, she rose from the obstacles holding her back and achieved a better world for the tribe that had raised her. Today, she is one of the most well-known woman Native American activists.

However, not all people view Sarah to be as significant as most of the population considers her to be. Joanna C. Scherer, an anthropologist at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, believes that Sarah was not as credible and whole-hearted as she may appear to be. After careful examination and analysis of posed photo portraits, Scherer hypothesized that “based on the studio portraits…Sarah Winnemucca created the image of herself as an American Indian Princess and used this imagery to promote herself” (188). Scherer believed that by posing in outfits not native to the Paiutes and in unnatural backgrounds, she was endorsing herself as a “new Pocahontas.” Although Scherer does not deny that Sarah Winnemucca influenced Native American history, the anthropologist grudgingly believes that Sarah is simply not all she was cracked up to be.

One of the most recent ways that Nevada has recognized Sarah Winnemucca’s effect on history is by adding a bronze statue of her to the National Statutory Hall in 2005. They describe her as “a spokesperson for her people,” with the remarkable feat of being the first Native American woman author. This sculpture is on display in Capitol Hill in Washington D.C.

Sarah Winnemucca truly lived a unique and irreplaceable life. She survived the expansion of brutal white settlers since the day she was born, and this abuse stirred her inspiration to achieve a better quality of life for the Pyramid Lake Paiute Indians. Sarah paved the way for activists to come, in different religions, races, sexuality, and other discriminatory spectrums. Without her work, Native Americans would be one more step behind in reaching equality in America. Although they have not entirely reached this status to this very day, people like Sarah Winnemucca have undoubtedly helped them come closer to achieving their end goal of egalitarianism.

Works Cited

Byington, Lewis F. "The Donner Party." Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine (1868 -1935) 05 1931: 135. ProQuest. Web. 20 Nov.

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Coates, Guy H. “Chief Truckee.” Truckee. Truckee Donner Historical Society, Inc., n.d. Web. 10 Nov. 2014.

Explore Capitol Hill. Architect of the Capitol, 2014. Web. 22 Nov 2014.

“Miss Sarah Winnemucca.” New York Times (1857-1922): 2. Jul 29 1873. ProQuest. Web. 10 Nov. 2014

Rowley, William. Personal interview. 12 Nov. 2014.

Scherer, Joanna Cohan. "The Public Faces of Sarah Winnemucca." Cultural Anthropology 3.2 (1988): 178-204. ProQuest. Web. 10 Nov.

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Winnemucca Hopkins, Sarah. Life among the Piutes. 1883. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1994. Print.